Although the Old English epic Beowulf is not on its face a Christian poem, its author has clearly been influenced by the Bible. The poem makes no direct mention of anything in the New Testament, but it does explicitly reference the Old Testament story of Cain and Abel. Upon closer inspection, Beowulf also contains more subtle allusions to the Bible, and there are many events and characters in Beowulf that have biblical analogs. Unlike Beowulf, the Bible is a composite work composed by multiple authors in three languages over the course of about 1600 years. This means that the Bible contains a wide variety of genres, settings, and characters, all of which are not necessarily comparable to Beowulf. The biblical book of Judges, however, stands out from the rest as being the most closely related to the world described in Beowulf.
The first similarity between Beowulf and the book of Judges is the tribal nature of the people groups involved. Although the Geats, Danes, Swedes, etc., each have their own tribal identities, they are also part of a greater North Germanic world. Like the 12 tribes of Israel during the period of the judges, their cultures and values are closely related, and they are able to communicate with each another in somewhat of a common language. However, there are also distinct cultural and linguistic differences between the tribes, and at various times, they can be either allied or at war with one another. In Judges 12, part of the tribe of Manasseh goes to war against the tribe of Ephraim, and when the Ephraimites are defeated, none are allowed to escape. In order to make sure that no Ephraimites pose as Manassites, they are made to pronounce the word “Shibboleth” since apparently the Ephraimites did not have the “sh” sound in their language and would instead say “Sibboleth.” This is comparable to the type of minor linguistic differences that would have separated say West Old Norse from East Old Norse. Although there are always going to be various dialects within a language, the North Germanic languages of Scandinavia “remained similar and mutually intelligible until about AD 1500.” (Byock 23) Thus Israel during the period of the judges and Scandinavia in the time of Beowulf were both confederations of distinct tribes that together formed a larger ethnic and cultural group.
In both Beowulf and the book of Judges, there is also a great emphasis on a single leader or warrior acting as a deliverer. In both books, everything rises and falls on leadership. Before Scyld Scefing came on the scene, the Spear-Danes had been “aldorlease lange hwile,” (Beowulf 15-16) (without a chief for a long while) which is described as a period of “dire distress” (OE: fyrenðearf). Also, at the very end of the poem when Beowulf dies, there is a prediction that once the Swedes learn that the lord of the Geats is lifeless, they will renew their hostilities. The implication is that the Geats will no longer be able to ward them off (Beowulf 2999-3007). Of course, this is also a play on words since the word used for “lifeless” here (OE: ealdorleasne) is so similar to the word used at the beginning of the poem for “without a chief” (OE: aldorlease). Likewise, in the book of Judges, whenever a great Israelite leader dies, events are set in motion that ultimately lead to the Israelites being invaded and subjugated by their neighbors.
The leaders in both Beowulf and Judges are also warriors who personally engage in battle themselves. The first qualifications given for Scyld Scefing that made him a “good king” were that he took away the mead benches of many peoples, terrified their warriors, and made them pay tribute (Beowulf 4-11). Beowulf himself ultimately becomes a king, in no small part due to his prowess in battle. Likewise, biblical judges Othniel, Ehud, Shamgar, Gideon, Jephthah, and Samson are warriors who either lead troops into battle or kill enemies singlehandedly. Although in both books, there is more to being a great leader than just skill on the battlefield or martial valor, being able to defeat the enemy is a major part of being a leader.
The particular biblical judge that Beowulf most resembles is Samson. Right on the surface, there is the obvious similarity that they are both characterized by incredible strength. There is also a numeric connection between the two that may even be an intentional allusion to the book of Judges by the author of Beowulf. When Grendel attacks Heorot, he kills and eats 30 thanes (Beowulf 120-125). Of his opponent, Beowulf, it is said “þæt he þritiges manna mægencræft on his mundgripe heaþorof hæbbe” (Beowulf 379-381) (that he, the battle brave, has the strength of 30 men in his handgrip). The number 30 is used fifteen times in the book of Judges and is clearly a thematic number in the book. The most explicit connection between Beowulf and Samson regarding the number 30 comes later in the poem when Beowulf is said to carry off in his arms the war gear of 30 defeated foes (Beowulf 2359-2362). This is similar to an episode in Judges 14 when Samson kills 30 Philistines and despoils them of their clothing. These allusions in Beowulf seem intentional since the number 30 comes up in contexts that connect Beowulf to Samson (i.e., with reference to his superhuman strength and with reference to him spoiling enemies of apparel).
Although Beowulf and Samson have different sources of strength, they are both much stronger than the average man. Beowulf seems to be naturally strong, perhaps having built up his strength through years of hard labor or experience in combat. Samson, on the other hand, is supernaturally strong because the spirit of the Lord comes upon him. Both men have a strength that seems superhuman to those around them. When we first meet Grendel, he is able to handily do away with 30 of Hrothgar’s thanes. It makes sense then that the man who will finally be his match is said by Hrothgar to have the strength of 30 men in his handgrip. Samson’s supernatural strength allows him to easily defeat 30 Philistines. Both men are far stronger than any other human.
Another connection between Beowulf and Samson in particular, although this applies to other judges as well, is the defeat of enemies without the use of conventional weapons. In his fight with Grendel, who does not use weapons, Beowulf foregoes the use of sword and shield in order to make his victory more glorious (Beowulf 433-441). In Judges 15, Samson kills a thousand men with the jawbone of an ass, which is obviously not a conventional weapon. In Judges 3, another biblical judge by the name of Shamgar kills 600 Philistines with an ox goad. The idea in both cases is that killing an enemy with no weapon, or an unconventional weapon, increases the glory of victory.
An even more obvious parallel with Beowulf’s emptyhanded victory over Grendel is the story of Samson killing a lion with his bare hands. The Latin Bible states,
“Irruit autem spiritus Domini in Samson, et dilaceravit leonem, quasi haedum in frustra discerpens, nihil omnino habens in manu" (Judges 14:6)
(And the spirit of the Lord came upon Samson, and he tore the lion as he would have torn a kid in pieces, having nothing at all in his hand)
When one thinks about the logistics of tearing a lion apart with one’s bare hands, the first thing that comes to mind is ripping off its limbs. It is quite possible that the story of Beowulf ripping off Grendel’s arm was inspired by the story of Samson ripping the limbs from a lion in the book of Judges.
Yet another strong connection between Beowulf and the book of Judges is the theme of vengeance as motivation. This is especially true in the life of Samson. In the story, there is a continual back and forth between Samson and the Philistines in an escalating cycle of vengeance. After the debacle of Samson’s marriage to the Philistine woman and its ensuing aftermath,
“Quibus ait Samson: Licet haec feceritis, tamen adhuc ex vobis expetam ultionem, et tunc quiescam.” (Judges 15:7)
(Samson said to them: Although you have done this, yet will I be revenged of you, and then I will be quiet.)
Three verses later, the Philistines tell the men of Judah,
“Dixeruntque ad eos de tribu Juda: Cur ascendistis adversum nos? Qui responderunt: Ut ligemus Samson venimus, et reddamus ei quae in nos operatus est" (Judges 15:10)
(We are come to bind Samson, and to pay him for what he hath done against us.)
In the next verse, Samson tells the men of Judah,
“Sicut fecerunt mihi, sic feci eis” (Judges 15:11)
(As they did to me, so have I done to them.)
Violence continues to beget violence in the story. Ultimately, Samson’s final prayer is,
“Domine Deus, memento mei, et redde mihi nunc fortitudinem pristinam, Deus meus, ut ulciscar me de hostibus meis, et pro amissione duorum luminum unam ultionem recipiam” (Judges 16:28)
(O Lord God, remember me, and restore to me now my former strength, O my God, that I may revenge myself on my enemies, and for the loss of my two eyes I may take one revenge)
In Beowulf, the eponymous hero says after killing Grendel, “Ic ðæt eall gewræc,” (Beowulf 2008) (I avenged all that) in reference to the atrocities that Grendel had carried out. Next we read, “Þa wæs eft hraðe gearo gyrnwræce Grendeles modor” (Beowulf 2020-2021) (Then After that, Grendel’s mother was quickly ready to avenge that injury). She does so by killing Hrothgar’s right hand man, Æschere, and now Æschere’s death must be avenged. This cycle of violence and vengeance is very similar to what we find in the book of Judges when we read about Samson.
In both Beowulf and the book of Judges, there are also long periods of peace that are left out of the narrative, during which time the land is at rest with a good leader at the helm. After both Grendel and his mother are defeated, and Beowulf returns home, we are told that “he geheold tela fiftig wintra” (Beowulf 2208-2209) (he ruled well for fifty winters). The story then picks up fifty years later when the next crisis takes place. The same pattern is found in the book of Judges.
“Quievitque terra quadraginta annis, et mortuus est Othoniel filius Cenez” (Judges 3:11).
(And the land rested forty years, and Othoniel the son of Cenez died)
“Humiliatusque est Moab in die illo sub manu Israel: et quievit terra octoginta annis” (Judges 3:30).
(And Moab was humbled that day under the hand of Israel: and the land rested eighty years.)
“Quievitque terra per quadraginta annos” (Judges 5:32).
(And the land rested for forty years.)
“Judicavitque Israel in diebus Philisthiim viginti annis.” (Judges 15:20).
(And he (Samson) judged Israel in the days of the Philistines twenty years)
Just as the “land rested” during these periods in the book of Judges, Beowulf tells us, “Ic ðas leode heold fiftig wintra. Næs se folccyning ymbesittendra ænig ðara þe mec guðwinum gretan dorste, egesan ðeon” (Beowulf 2732-2736) (I ruled this people for fifty winters. There was not any folk-king of the neighboring people that dared approach with an army to intimidate me). With Beowulf in power, no one dared attack, and thus the land had peace. In both Beowulf and Judges, after these lapses of decades, the story then picks up with the next piece of action.
After the 50-year interlude in Beowulf, the title character goes back into battle one last time as an old man. The idea of an old man continuing to be a mighty warrior is also common in the Bible. Although not found in the book of Judges itself, the exploits of Caleb and Joshua are found in the nearby book of Joshua, where both of these men continue to be warriors past the age of eighty. In Joshua 14, Caleb proclaims,
“Hodie octoginta quinque annorum sum, sic valens ut eo valebam tempore quando ad explorandum missus sum: illius in me temporis fortitudo usque hodie perseverat, tam ad bellandum quam ad gradiendum” (Joshua 14:10b-11).
(This day I am eighty-five years old, as strong as I was at that time when I was sent to view the land: the strength of that time continueth in me until this day, as well to fight as to march.)
Joshua himself is also over eighty years old as the commander in chief of Israel’s forces. The Latin Bible says of his predecessor,
“Moyses centum et viginti annorum erat quando mortuus est: non caligavit oculus ejus, nec dentes illius moti sunt” (Deuteronomy 34:7).
(Moses was a hundred and twenty years old when he died: his eye was not dim, neither were his teeth moved.)
Beowulf says of Scyld Scefing that he was still “very strong” (OE: felahror) when it was his appointed time to die (Beowulf 26-27).
Beowulf’s final battle as an old man will be with a dragon who wakes up when a golden cup is stolen from the hoard that he is guarding. The theft of this accursed treasure brings a curse upon the entire Geat nation as the dragon takes vengeance on the countryside night after night. This has a biblical analog in the story of Achan, which is also found in the book of Joshua.
“Filii autem Israel praevaricati sunt mandatum, et usurpaverunt de anathemate. Nam Achan filius Charmi filii Zabdi filii Zare de tribu Juda tulit aliquid de anathemate: iratusque est Dominus contra filios Israel” (Joshua 7:1).
(But the children of Israel transgressed the commandment, and took to their own use of the anathema. For Achan the son of Charmi, the son of Zabdi, the son of Zare of the tribe of Juda, took something of the anathema: and the Lord was angry against the children of Israel.)
Later, Achan describes the "anathema" that he took,
“Vidi enim inter spolia pallium coccineum valde bonum, et ducentos siclos argenti, regulamque auream quinquaginta siclorum: et concupiscens abstuli” (Joshua 7:21a).
(For I saw among the spoils a scarlet garment exceeding good, and two hundred sides of silver, and a golden rule of fifty sides: and I coveted them, and I took them away.)
Just as stealing this treasure incurred the wrath of the Lord, stealing the treasure in Beowulf incurred the wrath of the dragon who was guarding it. In the story of Achan, many innocent Israelites died as a result of his crime. The whole nation suffered. In Beowulf, the entire Geat nation suffered for this one man’s crime as well.
Eventually, the dragon’s rampage hits close to home when the house of Beowulf himself is burned to the ground. As a response to this, the poem says that “Wende se wisa þæt he Wealdende ofer ealde riht ecean Dryhtne bitre gebulge” (Beowulf 2329-2332) (the wise ruler (Beowulf) thought that he had sorely enraged the eternal Lord by transgressing some ancient righteousness). Beowulf sees this type of disaster as a curse of God resulting from sin, which is the same Deuteronomistic viewpoint found throughout the book of Judges. The dragon is symbolic of Satan throughout scripture, and in the Bible, the wicked can be delivered by God into the hand of Satan on this earth as a punishment for their crimes. In Paul’s first epistle to the Corinthians, when a man in the church is fornicating with his father’s wife, Paul instructs them,
“Tradere hujusmodi Satanae in interitum carnis, ut spiritus salvus sit in die Domini nostri Jesu Christi” (1 Corinthians 5:5).
(To deliver such a one to Satan for the destruction of the flesh, that the spirit may be saved in the day of our Lord Jesus Christ)
Beowulf seems to see himself as having been delivered into the hand of Satan when a fire breathing dragon destroys his house. He wonders what he has done to offend the Lord since the Lord is no longer protecting him. Again, this idea of catastrophe being the direct result of crimes against God would be perfectly at home in the book of Judges.
In Beowulf’s final battle, he kills the dragon by stabbing him in the stomach with a dagger. This calls to mind the story of Ehud, who stabs an obese king Eglon in the stomach in Judges 3. Beowulf successfully kills the dragon, but he himself is killed in the process, so his victory is bittersweet. Once again, his life parallels that of Samson, who also dies in the process of defeating the Philistines once and for all. The battle with the dragon and its aftermath is the final episode in Beowulf, just as Samson’s death is the final incident in the cycle of the judges (chapters 17-21 in the book of Judges deal with other subject matter, and do not record the exploits of any judges). Both Samson and Beowulf go out in a blaze of glory, taking their worst enemy with them.
When Beowulf dies, he talks about the fact that he would have liked to bequeath his war gear upon his son, if he had had one (Beowulf 2729-2732). Samson in the book of Judges also had no son. This is another important connection with the book of Judges because unlike being a king, being a judge was not hereditary. The leaders in the book of Judges were chosen based on their merits, character, and achievements, which was in accordance with the law of Moses (Deuteronomy 1:13-18). At one point in the book, the Israelites want Gideon to become their king and set up a hereditary monarchy, but he refuses.
“Dixeruntque omnes viri Israel ad Gedeon: Dominare nostri tu, et filius tuus, et filius filii tui: quia liberasti nos de manu Madian. Quibus ille ait: Non dominabor vestri, nec dominabitur in vos filius meus, sed dominabitur vobis Dominus” (Judges 8:22-23).
(And all the men of Israel said to Gedeon: Rule thou over us and thy son, and thy son's son: because thou hast delivered us from the hand of Madian. And he said to them: I will not rule over you, neither shall my son rule over you, but the Lord shall rule over you.)
In the next chapter, his evil son Abimelech murders the rest of his brethren and is made king. However, his reign only lasts for three years, after which time he is killed, and the system of the judges is reinstated. This episode reinforces the idea that being a judge is based on one’s merit, not on one’s birth. Throughout the book, judges are not hereditary, and they even come from a variety of tribes. In Beowulf, by contrast, there are hereditary monarchies in place, but Beowulf himself does not fit in with this paradigm. He is not the son of a king, nor does he pass his kingdom on to his son after him. In this way, he more resembles a biblical judge than a Scandinavian king.
At the end of Beowulf’s life, he makes a speech that is reminiscent of the speech made by Samuel in the Bible. Although Samuel does not appear in the book of Judges, he is typically seen as the last biblical judge before Israel’s transition to a monarchy with its first king Saul. As Beowulf is dying, he says, “Ic on earde bad mælgesceafta, heold min tela, ne sohte searoniðas, ne me swor fela aða on unriht” (Beowulf 2739-2740) (In my native land, I awaited my appointed times. I held my own well. I did not seek out hostility, nor did I swear many unrighteous oaths). Samuel says at the end of his life,
“Et nunc rex graditur ante vos: ego autem senui, et incanui: porro filii mei vobiscum sunt: itaque conversatus coram vobis ab adolescentia mea usque ad hanc diem, ecce praesto sum. Loquimini de me coram Domino, et coram christo ejus, utrum bovem cujusquam tulerim, aut asinum: si quempiam calumniatus sum, si oppressi aliquem, si de manu cujusquam munus accepi: et contemnam illud hodie, restituamque vobis” (1 Samuel 12:2-3).
(And now the king goeth before you: but I am old and greyheaded: and my sons are with you: having then conversed with you from my youth unto this day, behold here I am. Speak of me before the Lord, and before his anointed, whether I have taken any man's ox, or ass: If I have wronged any man, if I have oppressed any man, if I have taken a bribe at any man's hand: and I will despise it this day, and will restore it to you.)
Both men make a speech at the end of their career stating that they have ruled honestly and righteously. It is important to both men that they leave a legacy as having been a just ruler.
One major difference between Beowulf and the book of Judges (or virtually any part of the Bible for that matter) is the constant emphasis upon treasure and material goods in Beowulf. As we read the stories of the judges from Othniel to Samson, and even Samuel, there is virtually no mention of treasures or material wealth. The Israelites simply want to be an autonomous nation and dwell safely “absque timore ullo, unusquisque sub vite sua et sub ficu sua” (1 Kings 4:25). (without any fear, every one under his vine, and under his fig tree) The only time the Bible waxes eloquent about lavish wealth is when it describes King Solomon, but of course, this ends up contributing to his downfall. In the book of Judges, the excesses of King Solomon are far away, and riches have nothing to do with the story. This is not the case in Beowulf, where the author goes on and on about treasures, and the characters themselves are strongly motivated by the acquisition of wealth. In fact, the last thing Beowulf wants as he lies at the point of death is to have some of the dragon’s hoard brought to him so he can look at it. “Bio nu on ofoste, þæt ic ærwelan, goldæht ongite, gearo sceawige swegle searogimmas, þæt ic ðy seft mæge æfter maððumwelan min alætan lif leodscipe, þone ic longe heold" (Beowulf 2747-2751) (Hurry now, that I may see the golden treasure and gaze well at the brilliant, precious gems, that I may afterward, by means of the wealth of treasure, agreeably leave my life and my nation, which I have ruled for so long). According to the Bible,
“Radix enim omnium malorum est cupiditas (1 Timothy 6:10).
(For the desire of money is the root of all evils)
The type of desire expressed by Beowulf here would be seen as covetous, and therefore sinful.
In spite of the differences, Beowulf appears to have been influenced by the ethos of ancient Israel and the book of Judges. The author of Beowulf is clearly mixing the worldview of Scandinavian pagan warriors with the worldview of Bible-believing Christians, and the book of Judges contains many nexus points with which both groups could relate. Beowulf is a Scandinavian Samson that can be admired by both pagans and Christians alike. Beowulf may have a few unchristian attributes, but, hey, so do the biblical judges. At the end of the day, when you’re living in the medieval world of Beowulf’s audience, you are just glad that a guy like Beowulf is on our side.
NOTE: The Latin Vulgate has been used for all Biblical quotations since this is the Bible that would have been familiar to the author of Beowulf. The Douay-Rheims Version is a very literal translation of the Latin Vulgate.
Works Cited
Byock, Jesse L. Viking Language 1. Jules William Press, 2017.
Challoner, Richard, and Michael Tweedale. The Holy Bible: Douay-Rheims Version. Baronius Press, 2008.
Fulk, R.D., et al. Klaeber's Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg. University of Toronto Press, 2008.
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