The Book of Judges and the Old English Epic Beowulf

Although the Old English epic Beowulf is not on its face a Christian poem, its author has clearly been influenced by the Bible. The poem makes no direct mention of anything in the New Testament, but it does explicitly reference the Old Testament story of Cain and Abel. Upon closer inspection, Beowulf also contains more subtle allusions to the Bible, and there are many events and characters in Beowulf that have biblical analogs. Unlike Beowulf, the Bible is a composite work composed by multiple authors in three languages over the course of about 1600 years. This means that the Bible contains a wide variety of genres, settings, and characters, all of which are not necessarily comparable to Beowulf. The biblical book of Judges, however, stands out from the rest as being the most closely related to the world described in Beowulf. 

The first similarity between Beowulf and the book of Judges is the tribal nature of the people groups involved. Although the Geats, Danes, Swedes, etc., each have their own tribal identities, they are also part of a greater North Germanic world. Like the 12 tribes of Israel during the period of the judges, their cultures and values are closely related, and they are able to communicate with each another in somewhat of a common language. However, there are also distinct cultural and linguistic differences between the tribes, and at various times, they can be either allied or at war with one another. In Judges 12, part of the tribe of Manasseh goes to war against the tribe of Ephraim, and when the Ephraimites are defeated, none are allowed to escape. In order to make sure that no Ephraimites pose as Manassites, they are made to pronounce the word “Shibboleth” since apparently the Ephraimites did not have the “sh” sound in their language and would instead say “Sibboleth.” This is comparable to the type of minor linguistic differences that would have separated say West Old Norse from East Old Norse. Although there are always going to be various dialects within a language, the North Germanic languages of Scandinavia “remained similar and mutually intelligible until about AD 1500.” (Byock 23) Thus Israel during the period of the judges and Scandinavia in the time of Beowulf were both confederations of distinct tribes that together formed a larger ethnic and cultural group.  

In both Beowulf and the book of Judges, there is also a great emphasis on a single leader or warrior acting as a deliverer. In both books, everything rises and falls on leadership. Before Scyld Scefing came on the scene, the Spear-Danes had been “aldorlease lange hwile,” (Beowulf 15-16) (without a chief for a long while) which is described as a period of “dire distress” (OE: fyrenðearf). Also, at the very end of the poem when Beowulf dies, there is a prediction that once the Swedes learn that the lord of the Geats is lifeless, they will renew their hostilities. The implication is that the Geats will no longer be able to ward them off (Beowulf 2999-3007). Of course, this is also a play on words since the word used for “lifeless” here (OE: ealdorleasne) is so similar to the word used at the beginning of the poem for “without a chief” (OE: aldorlease). Likewise, in the book of Judges, whenever a great Israelite leader dies, events are set in motion that ultimately lead to the Israelites being invaded and subjugated by their neighbors.  

The leaders in both Beowulf and Judges are also warriors who personally engage in battle themselves. The first qualifications given for Scyld Scefing that made him a “good king” were that he took away the mead benches of many peoples, terrified their warriors, and made them pay tribute (Beowulf 4-11). Beowulf himself ultimately becomes a king, in no small part due to his prowess in battle. Likewise, biblical judges Othniel, Ehud, Shamgar, Gideon, Jephthah, and Samson are warriors who either lead troops into battle or kill enemies singlehandedly. Although in both books, there is more to being a great leader than just skill on the battlefield or martial valor, being able to defeat the enemy is a major part of being a leader. 

The particular biblical judge that Beowulf most resembles is Samson. Right on the surface, there is the obvious similarity that they are both characterized by incredible strength. There is also a numeric connection between the two that may even be an intentional allusion to the book of Judges by the author of Beowulf. When Grendel attacks Heorot, he kills and eats 30 thanes (Beowulf 120-125). Of his opponent, Beowulf, it is said “þæt he þritiges manna mægencræft on his mundgripe heaþorof hæbbe” (Beowulf 379-381) (that he, the battle brave, has the strength of 30 men in his handgrip). The number 30 is used fifteen times in the book of Judges and is clearly a thematic number in the book. The most explicit connection between Beowulf and Samson regarding the number 30 comes later in the poem when Beowulf is said to carry off in his arms the war gear of 30 defeated foes (Beowulf 2359-2362). This is similar to an episode in Judges 14 when Samson kills 30 Philistines and despoils them of their clothing. These allusions in Beowulf seem intentional since the number 30 comes up in contexts that connect Beowulf to Samson (i.e., with reference to his superhuman strength and with reference to him spoiling enemies of apparel). 

 Although Beowulf and Samson have different sources of strength, they are both much stronger than the average man. Beowulf seems to be naturally strong, perhaps having built up his strength through years of hard labor or experience in combat. Samson, on the other hand, is supernaturally strong because the spirit of the Lord comes upon him. Both men have a strength that seems superhuman to those around them. When we first meet Grendel, he is able to handily do away with 30 of Hrothgar’s thanes. It makes sense then that the man who will finally be his match is said by Hrothgar to have the strength of 30 men in his handgrip. Samson’s supernatural strength allows him to easily defeat 30 Philistines. Both men are far stronger than any other human. 

Another connection between Beowulf and Samson in particular, although this applies to other judges as well, is the defeat of enemies without the use of conventional weapons. In his fight with Grendel, who does not use weapons, Beowulf foregoes the use of sword and shield in order to make his victory more glorious (Beowulf 433-441). In Judges 15, Samson kills a thousand men with the jawbone of an ass, which is obviously not a conventional weapon. In Judges 3, another biblical judge by the name of Shamgar kills 600 Philistines with an ox goad. The idea in both cases is that killing an enemy with no weapon, or an unconventional weapon, increases the glory of victory. 

An even more obvious parallel with Beowulf’s emptyhanded victory over Grendel is the story of Samson killing a lion with his bare hands. The Latin Bible states, 

“Irruit autem spiritus Domini in Samson, et dilaceravit leonem, quasi haedum in frustra discerpens, nihil omnino habens in manu" (Judges 14:6) 

(And the spirit of the Lord came upon Samson, and he tore the lion as he would have torn a kid in pieces, having nothing at all in his hand) 

When one thinks about the logistics of tearing a lion apart with one’s bare hands, the first thing that comes to mind is ripping off its limbs. It is quite possible that the story of Beowulf ripping off Grendel’s arm was inspired by the story of Samson ripping the limbs from a lion in the book of Judges. 

Yet another strong connection between Beowulf and the book of Judges is the theme of vengeance as motivation. This is especially true in the life of Samson. In the story, there is a continual back and forth between Samson and the Philistines in an escalating cycle of vengeance. After the debacle of Samson’s marriage to the Philistine woman and its ensuing aftermath, 

“Quibus ait Samson: Licet haec feceritis, tamen adhuc ex vobis expetam ultionem, et tunc quiescam.” (Judges 15:7) 

(Samson said to them: Although you have done this, yet will I be revenged of you, and then I will be quiet.)

Three verses later, the Philistines tell the men of Judah, 

“Dixeruntque ad eos de tribu Juda: Cur ascendistis adversum nos? Qui responderunt: Ut ligemus Samson venimus, et reddamus ei quae in nos operatus est" (Judges 15:10)

(We are come to bind Samson, and to pay him for what he hath done against us.) 

In the next verse, Samson tells the men of Judah, 

“Sicut fecerunt mihi, sic feci eis” (Judges 15:11)

(As they did to me, so have I done to them.) 

Violence continues to beget violence in the story. Ultimately, Samson’s final prayer is, 

“Domine Deus, memento mei, et redde mihi nunc fortitudinem pristinam, Deus meus, ut ulciscar me de hostibus meis, et pro amissione duorum luminum unam ultionem recipiam” (Judges 16:28)

(O Lord God, remember me, and restore to me now my former strength, O my God, that I may revenge myself on my enemies, and for the loss of my two eyes I may take one revenge)

 In Beowulf, the eponymous hero says after killing Grendel, “Ic ðæt eall gewræc,” (Beowulf 2008) (I avenged all that) in reference to the atrocities that Grendel had carried out. Next we read, “Þa wæs eft hraðe gearo gyrnwræce Grendeles modor” (Beowulf 2020-2021) (Then After that, Grendel’s mother was quickly ready to avenge that injury). She does so by killing Hrothgar’s right hand man, Æschere, and now Æschere’s death must be avenged. This cycle of violence and vengeance is very similar to what we find in the book of Judges when we read about Samson.  

In both Beowulf and the book of Judges, there are also long periods of peace that are left out of the narrative, during which time the land is at rest with a good leader at the helm. After both Grendel and his mother are defeated, and Beowulf returns home, we are told that “he geheold tela fiftig wintra” (Beowulf 2208-2209) (he ruled well for fifty winters). The story then picks up fifty years later when the next crisis takes place. The same pattern is found in the book of Judges. 

“Quievitque terra quadraginta annis, et mortuus est Othoniel filius Cenez” (Judges 3:11).

(And the land rested forty years, and Othoniel the son of Cenez died) 

“Humiliatusque est Moab in die illo sub manu Israel: et quievit terra octoginta annis” (Judges 3:30).

(And Moab was humbled that day under the hand of Israel: and the land rested eighty years.)

“Quievitque terra per quadraginta annos” (Judges 5:32). 

(And the land rested for forty years.)

“Judicavitque Israel in diebus Philisthiim viginti annis.” (Judges 15:20).

(And he (Samson) judged Israel in the days of the Philistines twenty years)

Just as the “land rested” during these periods in the book of Judges, Beowulf tells us, “Ic ðas leode heold fiftig wintra. Næs se folccyning ymbesittendra ænig ðara þe mec guðwinum gretan dorste, egesan ðeon” (Beowulf 2732-2736) (I ruled this people for fifty winters. There was not any folk-king of the neighboring people that dared approach with an army to intimidate me). With Beowulf in power, no one dared attack, and thus the land had peace. In both Beowulf and Judges, after these lapses of decades, the story then picks up with the next piece of action. 

After the 50-year interlude in Beowulf, the title character goes back into battle one last time as an old man. The idea of an old man continuing to be a mighty warrior is also common in the Bible. Although not found in the book of Judges itself, the exploits of Caleb and Joshua are found in the nearby book of Joshua, where both of these men continue to be warriors past the age of eighty. In Joshua 14, Caleb proclaims, 

“Hodie octoginta quinque annorum sum, sic valens ut eo valebam tempore quando ad explorandum missus sum: illius in me temporis fortitudo usque hodie perseverat, tam ad bellandum quam ad gradiendum” (Joshua 14:10b-11).

(This day I am eighty-five years old, as strong as I was at that time when I was sent to view the land: the strength of that time continueth in me until this day, as well to fight as to march.)

Joshua himself is also over eighty years old as the commander in chief of Israel’s forces. The Latin Bible says of his predecessor, 

“Moyses centum et viginti annorum erat quando mortuus est: non caligavit oculus ejus, nec dentes illius moti sunt” (Deuteronomy 34:7).

(Moses was a hundred and twenty years old when he died: his eye was not dim, neither were his teeth moved.)

Beowulf says of Scyld Scefing that he was still “very strong” (OE: felahror) when it was his appointed time to die (Beowulf 26-27). 

Beowulf’s final battle as an old man will be with a dragon who wakes up when a golden cup is stolen from the hoard that he is guarding. The theft of this accursed treasure brings a curse upon the entire Geat nation as the dragon takes vengeance on the countryside night after night. This has a biblical analog in the story of Achan, which is also found in the book of Joshua. 

“Filii autem Israel praevaricati sunt mandatum, et usurpaverunt de anathemate. Nam Achan filius Charmi filii Zabdi filii Zare de tribu Juda tulit aliquid de anathemate: iratusque est Dominus contra filios Israel” (Joshua 7:1).

(But the children of Israel transgressed the commandment, and took to their own use of the anathema. For Achan the son of Charmi, the son of Zabdi, the son of Zare of the tribe of Juda, took something of the anathema: and the Lord was angry against the children of Israel.)

Later, Achan describes the "anathema" that he took,

“Vidi enim inter spolia pallium coccineum valde bonum, et ducentos siclos argenti, regulamque auream quinquaginta siclorum: et concupiscens abstuli” (Joshua 7:21a).

(For I saw among the spoils a scarlet garment exceeding good, and two hundred sides of silver, and a golden rule of fifty sides: and I coveted them, and I took them away.)

Just as stealing this treasure incurred the wrath of the Lord, stealing the treasure in Beowulf incurred the wrath of the dragon who was guarding it. In the story of Achan, many innocent Israelites died as a result of his crime. The whole nation suffered. In Beowulf, the entire Geat nation suffered for this one man’s crime as well. 

Eventually, the dragon’s rampage hits close to home when the house of Beowulf himself is burned to the ground. As a response to this, the poem says that “Wende se wisa þæt he Wealdende ofer ealde riht ecean Dryhtne bitre gebulge” (Beowulf 2329-2332) (the wise ruler (Beowulf) thought that he had sorely enraged the eternal Lord by transgressing some ancient righteousness). Beowulf sees this type of disaster as a curse of God resulting from sin, which is the same Deuteronomistic viewpoint found throughout the book of Judges. The dragon is symbolic of Satan throughout scripture, and in the Bible, the wicked can be delivered by God into the hand of Satan on this earth as a punishment for their crimes. In Paul’s first epistle to the Corinthians, when a man in the church is fornicating with his father’s wife, Paul instructs them, 

“Tradere hujusmodi Satanae in interitum carnis, ut spiritus salvus sit in die Domini nostri Jesu Christi” (1 Corinthians 5:5).

(To deliver such a one to Satan for the destruction of the flesh, that the spirit may be saved in the day of our Lord Jesus Christ) 

Beowulf seems to see himself as having been delivered into the hand of Satan when a fire breathing dragon destroys his house. He wonders what he has done to offend the Lord since the Lord is no longer protecting him. Again, this idea of catastrophe being the direct result of crimes against God would be perfectly at home in the book of Judges.  

In Beowulf’s final battle, he kills the dragon by stabbing him in the stomach with a dagger. This calls to mind the story of Ehud, who stabs an obese king Eglon in the stomach in Judges 3. Beowulf successfully kills the dragon, but he himself is killed in the process, so his victory is bittersweet. Once again, his life parallels that of Samson, who also dies in the process of defeating the Philistines once and for all. The battle with the dragon and its aftermath is the final episode in Beowulf, just as Samson’s death is the final incident in the cycle of the judges (chapters 17-21 in the book of Judges deal with other subject matter, and do not record the exploits of any judges). Both Samson and Beowulf go out in a blaze of glory, taking their worst enemy with them. 

When Beowulf dies, he talks about the fact that he would have liked to bequeath his war gear upon his son, if he had had one (Beowulf 2729-2732). Samson in the book of Judges also had no son. This is another important connection with the book of Judges because unlike being a king, being a judge was not hereditary. The leaders in the book of Judges were chosen based on their merits, character, and achievements, which was in accordance with the law of Moses (Deuteronomy 1:13-18). At one point in the book, the Israelites want Gideon to become their king and set up a hereditary monarchy, but he refuses. 

“Dixeruntque omnes viri Israel ad Gedeon: Dominare nostri tu, et filius tuus, et filius filii tui: quia liberasti nos de manu Madian. Quibus ille ait: Non dominabor vestri, nec dominabitur in vos filius meus, sed dominabitur vobis Dominus” (Judges 8:22-23).

(And all the men of Israel said to Gedeon: Rule thou over us and thy son, and thy son's son: because thou hast delivered us from the hand of Madian. And he said to them: I will not rule over you, neither shall my son rule over you, but the Lord shall rule over you.)

In the next chapter, his evil son Abimelech murders the rest of his brethren and is made king. However, his reign only lasts for three years, after which time he is killed, and the system of the judges is reinstated. This episode reinforces the idea that being a judge is based on one’s merit, not on one’s birth. Throughout the book, judges are not hereditary, and they even come from a variety of tribes. In Beowulf, by contrast, there are hereditary monarchies in place, but Beowulf himself does not fit in with this paradigm. He is not the son of a king, nor does he pass his kingdom on to his son after him. In this way, he more resembles a biblical judge than a Scandinavian king. 

At the end of Beowulf’s life, he makes a speech that is reminiscent of the speech made by Samuel in the Bible. Although Samuel does not appear in the book of Judges, he is typically seen as the last biblical judge before Israel’s transition to a monarchy with its first king Saul. As Beowulf is dying, he says, “Ic on earde bad mælgesceafta, heold min tela, ne sohte searoniðas, ne me swor fela aða on unriht” (Beowulf 2739-2740) (In my native land, I awaited my appointed times. I held my own well. I did not seek out hostility, nor did I swear many unrighteous oaths). Samuel says at the end of his life, 

“Et nunc rex graditur ante vos: ego autem senui, et incanui: porro filii mei vobiscum sunt: itaque conversatus coram vobis ab adolescentia mea usque ad hanc diem, ecce praesto sum. Loquimini de me coram Domino, et coram christo ejus, utrum bovem cujusquam tulerim, aut asinum: si quempiam calumniatus sum, si oppressi aliquem, si de manu cujusquam munus accepi: et contemnam illud hodie, restituamque vobis” (1 Samuel 12:2-3).

(And now the king goeth before you: but I am old and greyheaded: and my sons are with you: having then conversed with you from my youth unto this day, behold here I am. Speak of me before the Lord, and before his anointed, whether I have taken any man's ox, or ass: If I have wronged any man, if I have oppressed any man, if I have taken a bribe at any man's hand: and I will despise it this day, and will restore it to you.)

Both men make a speech at the end of their career stating that they have ruled honestly and righteously. It is important to both men that they leave a legacy as having been a just ruler. 

One major difference between Beowulf and the book of Judges (or virtually any part of the Bible for that matter) is the constant emphasis upon treasure and material goods in Beowulf. As we read the stories of the judges from Othniel to Samson, and even Samuel, there is virtually no mention of treasures or material wealth. The Israelites simply want to be an autonomous nation and dwell safely “absque timore ullo, unusquisque sub vite sua et sub ficu sua” (1 Kings 4:25). (without any fear, every one under his vine, and under his fig tree) The only time the Bible waxes eloquent about lavish wealth is when it describes King Solomon, but of course, this ends up contributing to his downfall. In the book of Judges, the excesses of King Solomon are far away, and riches have nothing to do with the story. This is not the case in Beowulf, where the author goes on and on about treasures, and the characters themselves are strongly motivated by the acquisition of wealth. In fact, the last thing Beowulf wants as he lies at the point of death is to have some of the dragon’s hoard brought to him so he can look at it. “Bio nu on ofoste, þæt ic ærwelan, goldæht ongite, gearo sceawige swegle searogimmas, þæt ic ðy seft mæge æfter maððumwelan min alætan lif leodscipe, þone ic longe heold" (Beowulf 2747-2751) (Hurry now, that I may see the golden treasure and gaze well at the brilliant, precious gems, that I may afterward, by means of the wealth of treasure, agreeably leave my life and my nation, which I have ruled for so long). According to the Bible, 

“Radix enim omnium malorum est cupiditas (1 Timothy 6:10).

(For the desire of money is the root of all evils) 

The type of desire expressed by Beowulf here would be seen as covetous, and therefore sinful. 

In spite of the differences, Beowulf appears to have been influenced by the ethos of ancient Israel and the book of Judges. The author of Beowulf is clearly mixing the worldview of Scandinavian pagan warriors with the worldview of Bible-believing Christians, and the book of Judges contains many nexus points with which both groups could relate. Beowulf is a Scandinavian Samson that can be admired by both pagans and Christians alike. Beowulf may have a few unchristian attributes, but, hey, so do the biblical judges. At the end of the day, when you’re living in the medieval world of Beowulf’s audience, you are just glad that a guy like Beowulf is on our side. 

NOTE: The Latin Vulgate has been used for all Biblical quotations since this is the Bible that would have been familiar to the author of Beowulf. The Douay-Rheims Version is a very literal translation of the Latin Vulgate. 

Works Cited

Byock, Jesse L. Viking Language 1. Jules William Press, 2017. 

Challoner, Richard, and Michael Tweedale. The Holy Bible: Douay-Rheims Version. Baronius Press, 2008. 

Fulk, R.D., et al. Klaeber's Beowulf and the Fight at Finnsburg. University of Toronto Press, 2008. 

Spiritual and Human Elements to Our Understanding of the Bible

A unique attribute of the Bible is that it is written both by human authors and by God himself. As a result, it cannot simply be read like any other book without the aid of divine guidance. The Apostle Paul says in his first epistle to the Corinthians that it is not possible for the natural man to comprehend the words which the Holy Ghost teaches since those words can only be discerned spiritually (1 Corinthians 2:14). When a saved Christian reads the Bible, God speaks to him through the word, and the eyes of his understanding are opened.

However, the fact that the Holy Spirit's leading is a necessary part of Bible study does not preclude the need for studying things like grammar, syntax, history, geography, etc. The most obvious proof of this is that a person cannot understand the Bible at all if they do not know the language in which it is written. For example, if a person walked into a Roman Catholic church and heard scripture being read aloud in Latin, and that person did not know any Latin, they would not be edified whatsoever (1 Corinthians 14:19). Therefore, it stands to reason that if a person has only a rudimentary understanding of language, they will not be able to get as much out of scripture as if they had a better command of the language.

In addition to knowledge of the language, knowledge of history and geography can aid in understanding the Bible as well. If this were not the case, there would not be so much historical and geographical data included in the Bible. When the Bible tells us that Caesar Augustus was in power when Christ was born (Luke 2:1), or that Tiberius Caesar was in power when John the Baptist began preaching (Luke 3:1), we are being given the historical backdrop on which the events of scripture take place. When we are told that Jonah fled to Tarshish from the presence of the LORD (Jonah 1:3), it is helpful to know that Tarshish is in the exact opposite direct of Nineveh, which is the place that the LORD had originally commanded him to go. Just as comprehension of grammar and vocabulary helps us understand the Bible, so does knowledge of history and geography. 

Interpreting the Bible is a spiritual activity, but it also relies on our human intellect. We should not pit these two ideas against one another since they are complementary. Learning the Bible well requires both spiritual discernment, as well as the acquisition of human knowledge. If either element is missing, we will not be able to fully benefit from what God has for us in his word.

Beware of the Judaizers

Today there is a disturbing trend toward Judaizing, and the book of Galatians is more important than ever in countering this error. In modern America, the majority of Christian men are circumcised,  despite the New Testament's clear teaching that circumcision is not a Christian practice (Galatians 5:2-3, 6). Many Christians are beginning to eschew traditional Christian holidays and embrace the Jewish calendar with its feasts and holidays. The Hebrew Roots Movement, Sacred Name Movement, and other Torah-observing Christian groups are now reaching a large audience via the internet and infecting them with their false doctrine. The Book of Galatians is the cure for this disease. In Galatians 3, Paul explains that although the law served an important role in the past, New Testament Christians are now children of Abraham by virtue of their faith in Christ alone, and adherence to the law has nothing to add to our status in Christ.

The Law was Temporary 

The law was never intended to be in place permanently. In Galatians 3:19, Paul tells us that the law was added "until the seed should come to whom the promise was made." The key term here is "until." The law was only ever intended to be in force until the coming of Christ.  The temporary nature of the law is again reiterated in verse 23, when Paul says that we were kept under the law "before faith came." The word "faith" here is specifically referring to "the faith of Jesus Christ" mentioned at the end of verse 22.  Now that the New Testament Christian faith has come, we are no longer kept under the law. This is made clear yet again in the following verses: "Wherefore the law was our schoolmaster to bring us unto Christ, that we might be justified by faith. But after that faith is come, we are no longer under a schoolmaster" (Galatians 3:24-25). The law served a purpose in the past, but now that Christ has come, the reign of the law has come to an end. 

Subjection to the Law is a Move Backward

The word "schoolmaster" in this context is referring to what we would call today a "tutor." This should be read in the context of Paul's argument at the beginner of chapter 4 where he talks about children being "under tutors and governors" (Galatians 4:2). Children need supervision as they are growing up since they are not yet mature enough to be responsible for themselves. However, no well-adjusted, functioning adult desires to have a babysitter micromanage his life. An adult who regresses to a juvenile state is dysfunctional. Likewise, for the New Testament Christian to regress to a state of being under the law is inappropriate. Ironically, modern Christians who desire to be under the law of Moses think it will help them achieve greater spiritual maturity. In reality, the exact opposite is true since subjection to the law is a spiritual move backward.  

The Law Adds Nothing to Our Status in Christ

In Galatians 3:21, Paul tells us that the law cannot give life, nor does righteousness come by the law. In other words, the law has nothing to do with our salvation. We are going to Heaven by virtue of our faith in Christ alone, not by adherence to the law. In addition to saving us, our faith in Christ also makes us the children of God (Galatians 3:26) and the children of Abraham (Galatians 3:29). The seed of Abraham par excellence is Jesus Christ,  and if we are in Jesus Christ, then we ourselves are Abraham's offspring also. Whether we be Jew or Gentile, we are all baptized into one body (1 Corinthians 12:13), and in Christ, no distinction is made between the Jew and the Greek (Galatians 3:28). The law does not save us, nor does it give us life, nor make us righteous, nor make us children of God, nor make us children of Abraham, nor make us members of the body of Christ, nor does it make us a part of the Christian community. We already have all these blessings in Christ without the law, so it is clear that the law adds nothing to our status as Christians. 

Some will claim that if a Jew receives Christ as savior, he remains a Jew and must still therefore be subject unto the law.  However, we have just seen that in Christ there is neither Jew nor Gentile (Galatians 3:28). There are not two sets of rules for God's people in the New Testament. There is one fold and one shepherd (John 10:16). In the book of Galatians itself, Paul says that Peter, "being a Jew, [lives] after the manner of the Gentiles" (Galatians 2:14), and that "he did eat with the Gentiles" (Galatians 2:12). Peter's eating with the Gentiles involved the consumption of foods forbidden by the Old Testament law.  Peter had already previously been commanded by God to eat unclean animals in a vision (Acts 10:10-15). No Christian is under the law, as both Jews and Gentiles have the same standing in Christ.

Conclusion 

Paul warned the Galatians about the Judaizers of their day, and we must also beware of this unbiblical false teaching. As New Testament Christians, we are no longer under the law, and regressing to the religion of the Old Testament is unprofitable. This goes for both Jews and Gentiles since we are all one in Christ Jesus. We have already achieved full standing as Christians by faith, and the law does not confer any additional status. At this point, further spiritual growth will come by walking in the spirit, not by adherence to carnal ordinances. 

What is the Gift of God in Ephesians 2:8?

Ephesians 2:8 is an important verse about salvation by faith, and in English translation, it ends with the statement, "And that not of yourselves, it is the gift of God." This verse is stating that something is the gift of God, but there is controversy concerning the referent of the pronoun "it." Some believe it is referring to faith, others that it is referring to grace, and others that it is referring to salvation itself.

Over the years, I have heard many people claim that faith is definitely the gift of God in this passage. This view is attractive to those who minimize the personal decision involved in putting one's faith in Christ. They claim that God is the one who provides the faith to anyone who believes in Christ, and that those who have not received this gift of faith are incapable of being saved. One major problem with this interpretation of Ephesians 2:8 is that the Greek pronoun in question, τοῦτο, is neuter, whereas the proposed antecedent, πίστεως, is feminine. The lack of gender agreement between pronoun and antecedent makes this interpretation extremely unlikely. Although many modern Calvinists may claim that faith is the gift of God in this verse, it is interesting to note that John Calvin himself wrote in his commentary on Ephesians 2:9 that this is an error (Hart 2006, 56). 

Faith in this context is not generic but is specifically referring to faith in Jesus Christ. People are not saved by faith if they have their faith in something other than Jesus. For example, people who place their faith in Buddhism, the Virgin Mary, or adherence to the law, will not be saved. The faith that saves us must specifically be faith in Christ. With that in mind, it is problematic to state that faith in Christ is a gift from God, when God is constantly demanding throughout scripture that people believe on the Lord Jesus Christ. What would be the point in telling people to "choose life" if the choice has already been made for them? In John 5:40, Jesus said, "And ye will not come to me, that ye might have life." "Will" in this context of 17th century English means "want." The problem here is not that people are lacking a supposed gift of faith, but rather that they do not want to put their faith in Christ.

Those who propose grace as the gift of God are on firmer ground theologically since there are many scriptures in the New Testament that reference the gift of God's grace. In fact, the Greek word for grace, χάρις, and another Greek word for gift, χάρισμα, are obviously closely related (Lamour 2023, 1). However, the same gender problem exists for this interpretation since χάριτί is also a feminine noun. Rather than grace being the gift, it makes more sense that the statement, "It is the gift of God," is reiterating the previous statement about salvation being by grace. 

τοῦτο is clearly a reference to the entire phrase ἐστε σεσῳσμένοι, "ye are saved," which is why the pronoun is neuter. According to this interpretation, salvation itself is the gift of God. This is supported by other scriptures, like Romans 6:23, that state that the gift of God is eternal life. Possessing eternal life and being saved are synonymous, so the parallel is strong. Growing up as a Christian, this was always my natural reading of the text, and only as an adult did I become aware of the teaching that "faith" was the gift of God in Ephesians 2:8. In my opinion, anyone reading these verses in Greek would never come away with that conclusion due to the issue of the mismatched genders. A natural reading of the King James Version would also lead one to the right interpretation, unless one approached the text with a theological bias.

Bibliography

Hart, John. "Is faith a gift from God according to Ephesians 2: 8? A grammatical analysis." Chafer Theological Seminary Journal 12, no. 2 (2006): 44-57.

Lamour, Corinne. 2023. "Charisma and Surgery in the Middles Ages: The Example of Henri de Mondeville, Surgeon of Philip IV the Fair" Religions 14, no. 6: 699. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14060699

Unity in the Local Church

Ephesians 4:7-16 is a great passage on the interconnectedness of Christians within the church. As members of the same body, we exert mutual spiritual influence as we engage and interact one with another.  Although not everyone in the church is specifically an evangelist, pastor, or teacher, nevertheless, every member contributes something vital to the edification of the body of Christ (Eph. 4:16). The application of this truth to church ministry is that we should not think of certain church members as unimportant or expendable. We should not make the mistake of only valuing people who are obviously talented, or whom we like on a personal level. Every Christian plays a role in God's plan, and the neglect of any part of the body is going to hurt the body as a whole. 

Another important teaching of this passage is that Christ has given leaders to the church, who are uniquely equipped to facilitate spiritual growth in the lives of God's people. We should respect and listen to these leaders and allow them to increase our knowledge of the word of God. Although every member of the church is important, not every member is equally qualified to teach and preach sound doctrine. The church should not be an open mic night or a karaoke bar. The men who are preaching in church should be apt to teach and scripturally qualified. There are situations where churches will allow every single person to say whatever is on their mind during church services or Bible studies, and this is not necessarily edifying (1 Cor. 14:26). It can often lead to false doctrine and confusion. The church should be guided by the effective leaders whom Christ has provided, and they should set the tone. During times of fellowship, everyone can talk among themselves and edify one another. However, the quality teaching and preaching coming across the pulpit will help keep everyone on the same page. 

Another important lesson from this passage is that Christians need to be fed knowledge through the teaching ministry of their church. Some churches gear their entire Sunday morning service every week at evangelizing the lost. People will then often complain that they are not being fed since they are already saved, yet they hear a salvation sermon every week. We are repeatedly told in scripture to go out and evangelize the lost (e.g., Mark 16:15), but that predominantly takes place outside of the church. Within the church, the teaching and preaching should perfect the saints and edify the body of Christ (Eph. 4:11-12). There is a lot in the Bible for Christians to learn and a lot of false doctrine to avoid. If there is going to be unity in the church, the entire Bible will need to be preached, as opposed to only passages dealing directly with the Gospel and salvation. 

Finally, we need to always be mindful of the fact that conformity to the image of Christ is our ultimate goal (Eph. 4:13, 15). Christ is the head of the church, and spiritual growth within the church starts and ends with him. The connection to Christ as head is what supplies the body with the spiritual nutrition needed for growth.  Christ is also our role model who left us a perfect example to follow. Although Christ also supplied human leaders, they will sometimes let us down. They are not perfect examples, and they should only be emulated to the extent that they are following Christ. Christ is the standard by which we are to judge ourselves and our spiritual growth (Eph. 4:13).

Conclusion

Every member of the church is important, and it is God's will that the church be unified. Unity is achieved by increasing the knowledge of God's people and bringing them into greater communion with Christ and with each other. Christ purchased the church with his own blood and defeated death and Hell in order to provide us with everything we need to succeed as Christians. This includes God's gift of evangelists, pastors, and teachers, who are here to feed us with knowledge and lead us to greater spiritual heights. The leaders of the church should evangelize the lost, but they should not neglect the task of edifying those who are already saved. If we do things God's way, and if the vision for the church found in Ephesians 4 is realized, more people will be saved in the long run. Many enemies are out there, lying in wait to deceive our brothers and sisters in Christ. All of us have a part to play in making sure that the integrity of our faith is maintained, and that the work of Christ goes forward.

Christian Growth via the Internet

 These days people are spending huge amounts of their time online, and this is especially true of young people. On the one hand, we could lament this and wish it were not so. On the other hand, we could realize that whether we like it or not, this is the reality of our current world, and we should make the best of it. The truth is that a tremendous amount of spiritual growth is possible online, and we should harness the internet to facilitate Christian growth in ourselves and others. This does not replace the physical gatherings of God's people at the local church, but even for those who attend church faithfully, a social media component can help them stay connected with one another throughout the week. 

Spiritual Growth Online

For almost two millennia, Christians have gathered together in a congregation to hear the word of God preached. In modern America, this typically takes place 1-3 times per week. However, today it is possible to listen to the preaching of God's word anytime anywhere. In the early days of the internet, I used to use dial-up internet to download low quality audio files of sermons, and each hour-long sermon took at least 45 minutes to download. It would then take another hour to transfer the sermon to an audio cassette that I could listen to the next day on my Walkman while I was at work. I would prepare as many sermon tapes as I could this way, so I could have several hours of preaching to listen to each day at work. Now, things are much easier, and Christians are able to supplement the preaching they hear in person with the sermons they hear online. 

This is the exact Walkman I had when I was younger.

In my own life, listening to preaching on my headphones throughout the week really accelerated my Christian growth and allowed me to learn a lot of Bible while doing other things. In addition to helping me learn a lot, listening to preaching also helped me to keep my mind on spiritual things and stay fired up about the things of God. I ran out of preaching tapes pretty fast, which is why I needed the internet to keep supplying me with more preaching. Today, the vast majority of churches put their content online, so there is no shortage of quality preaching that can be downloaded. Listening to preaching can help people grow tremendously.

Connectedness Online

People strongly desire meaningful connections with other people. God created us to have this desire, and ultimately it reflects the relationship that he has always desired to have with us.  In the garden of Eden, God said that it was not good for the man to be alone (Gen. 2:18), and most of us thrive when we enjoy meaningful connections with others. The original social life that God created for man was within the family. God created a wife for Adam, and over time, they had children. Beyond the family, God has also given us the local church as place for our inherent social needs to be met. 

Attending church three times a week is a great way to create and maintain meaningful connections with other Christians. However, for some people, this is not enough. Especially in our modern world, where more and more people are living alone or are estranged from their families, a way to stay in touch with their Christian friends daily is helpful. Modern technology has made this easier than ever with group chats, social media platforms, and even video conferencing software like Zoom. Christians can now supplement the fellowship they enjoy at their local church with an online component throughout the week. 

Ecology and the Christian Life

Our natural world consists of various ecological systems, in which plants and animals interact in complicated ways. A scriptural example of this is found in Psalm 104:10-21, which describes an ecosystem consisting of plants, animals, and humans. A food chain is described that includes herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores, and the passage repeatedly emphasizes God's care for his creatures. God has created the natural world in such a way that living things rely on one another in symbiotic relationships. Many ecosystems contain a keystone species, and if this species is removed, the entire ecosystem will suffer drastically. 

The ecology of the natural world is a great analogy for the spiritual ecologies that exist among Christians. God does not intend for Christians to operate on their own. At the very beginning of creation, God said that it was a not good for the man to be alone (Genesis 2:18), and God provided him with companionship in the form of his wife. The man, his wife, and their children form an interconnected system of relationships. Each member of the family has a role to play. According to 1 Corinthians 11:12, neither man nor woman can exist without the other. 

In addition to family, another important connection that Christians share is in the church. In 1 Corinthians 12, the church is likened unto a human body where each member has its function and role to play in the greater system. Every part of the body is important and necessary for its proper function. The interconnected nature of the body is emphasized in 1 Corinthians 12:26, where we are told that if one member suffers, the rest of the body suffers with it. Likewise, when one member is honored, the entire body rejoices with it. It is important that we as Christians participate in these church relationships and fulfill the unique calling that each of us has received from God. 

We also need to realize that all of these ecologies, including the church, are interactive. Many Christians attend church passively, listening to the music and preaching, but not participating in a meaningful way. According to Ephesians 4:16, every part of the body needs to contribute in order for the body to edify itself in love. Although some roles in the church are more prominent than others, each member should seek to participate and use their unique spiritual gifts for the benefit of the entire congregation. Just as the lack of a certain species can harm an ecosystem in nature, the church is also harmed when a member is missing or not fulfilling their calling.

The Canon of Scripture

The English word "canon" comes from the Greek word κανών, which means "list," "rule," or "standard" (Klein 2017, 165). This Greek word is used in Philippians 3:16, where Paul tells the Philippians that we should all walk by the same rule, the underlying Greek word for "rule" being κανών. In the context of studying the Bible, the word "canon" refers to the authoritative list of books that make up the Holy Bible. For evangelical Christians, that list consists of 66 books from Genesis to Revelation. 

All the books which now make up the New Testament were written in the first century A.D. In the following centuries, these books were read, preached, and used by Christians in various parts of the world. However, other texts like the Epistle of Barnabas and the shepherd of Hermas also enjoyed relatively short-lived popularity in certain Christian circles (Klein 2017, 174). These texts would ultimately be discarded as non-canonical. Early Christians ultimately felt the need for an authoritative canon of scripture due to heretics like Marcion, who removed anything from the New Testament that did not fit his heretical theology (Ibid.). An authoritative list would prevent true scripture from being removed, and it would also prevent spurious scriptures from being added. 

There were a few basic criteria for a book to be considered for the New Testament canon. First, it needed to be tied to an apostle. All the books of the New Testament are either written by apostles, or by men who were closely connected to an apostle or with Jesus (Ibid., 179). Second, it needed to be in harmony with the rest of the New Testament with respect to its doctrine. Another way of saying this is that it should not contradict any other book of the New Testament (Ibid.). Third, it needed to have the widespread acceptance of Christians in general, as opposed to only having been accepted by a certain group or certain geography. Books that made it into the canon had stood the test of time and had been effectively used by Christians throughout the world. 

In my opinion, the most important criterion for canonicity is that a book be in harmony with the rest of the New Testament. If a book were to teach heretical doctrine, it could not possibly come from God, and it therefore should not be included. I think the least important criterion is that a book be tied to an apostle. The human author is not the most important consideration when determining canonicity. If we think about the Old Testament, there are very many books whose author is completely unknown. We know they are God's word because of their power and their consistency with the rest of scripture.

It is important to note that "[t]he process of canonization did not grant biblical books their authority" (Klein 2017, 180). The production of an authoritative list of books for the New Testament simply formalized something that was already de facto agreed upon by the majority of Christians. The books of the New Testament are authoritative because they stand out as being divinely inspired. Another way of saying this is that the scriptures are self-authenticating. Without self-attestation, something other than the scriptures would have to be our final authority. The scriptures show themselves to be the word of God by having a power that man-made books simply do not have. 

If someone claimed to me that the canon of scripture should still be open, I would point out that any new discoveries at this late date could not possibly be God's word. God promised repeatedly to preserve his word (e.g., Matt. 5:18, 24:35) so something that has been buried for centuries does not fit that bill. God clearly preserved the rest of his word over the past 2,000 years, so it would make no sense that he had allowed part of the Bible to perish for thousands of years, only to be rediscovered later. 

Bibliography 

Klein, William W., Craig L. Blomberg, and Robert L. Hubbard, Jr. Introduction to Biblical Interpretation. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2017. 

The Whole Armor of God

We as Christians are continually involved in spiritual warfare. On the one hand, Satan himself is seeking to devour us (1 Pet. 5:8), and on the other hand, the human enemies of the Gospel are persecuting us for seeking to live a godly Christian life (2 Tim. 3:12). In order to stand up to this onslaught, we will need to be strong in the Lord and not rely on our human strength alone. The battle is spiritual in nature, and it will take spiritual fortitude to win the victory. For example, if a preacher gets up and preaches a hard truth from the word of God, he may face a backlash from people who don't know or don't care what the Bible says. Humanly speaking, he may be tempted to walk back his biblical statements since so many people are saying that he is wrong. However, if he is strong in the Lord, he will have enough faith to stand by his guns about what the Bible says and not water down the message.

If we are going to effectively stand, we need to first make sure that we are grounded in truth, which is why the first step to putting on the whole armor of God is having our "loins girt about with truth" (Eph. 6:14). Taking a stand is of no value if we are standing for something that is not even true. God's word is truth (John 17:17), and we need to make sure that everything we believe is derived from scripture. Possessing the truth and being confident that it is in fact the truth will give us boldness to stand in the evil day. 

The next piece of armor, the breastplate of righteousness, is also of critical importance since it involves putting the truths we know into practice. The truths of God's word give us "instruction in righteousness" (2 Tim. 3:16), and being a doer of the word means living out those truths in our day-to-day lives. For example, the Bible teaches that we should use corporal punishment on our children (Prov. 23:13-14). The world may criticize or condemn this type of parenting, but we know from the Bible that this is a timeless truth. There may be times that we doubt the wisdom of this teaching, but if we do what the Bible says in spite of what others may say or do, we are protected by the breastplate of righteousness. Knowing the truth and putting it into practice is a powerful combination. 

The next step in putting on the whole armor of God is having our feet shod with the preparation of the Gospel of peace. Many Christians are not actively involved with evangelizing the lost. In many cases, even if an opportunity to share the Gospel were to fall right into their laps, they would be unprepared. By continually sharing the Gospel, and thus being prepared to do so whenever the opportunity arises, we are also protecting ourselves from the Devil's attacks. This may seem counterintuitive, but upon further reflection, it makes a lot of sense. Preaching the Gospel to the lost keeps the Gospel on our minds continually which strengthens us spiritually. The Gospel will be more real and fresh to the person who is regularly witnessing to the lost, than to the person who rarely, if ever, gives the plan of salvation to anyone. 

The shield of faith has to do with believing what the Bible says in spite of the doubts that may arise. This world has an agenda to get us to doubt the word of God, and when we hit a spiritual low point, the Devil will seek to sow doubt in our minds about the way we have chosen to live our lives in accordance with scripture. He will also try to get us to doubt our salvation, which is why the helmet of the hope of salvation is so important. The more we read our Bibles and the more we listen to the Bible being preached, the stronger our faith will be. Putting the Bible into practice will also strengthen our faith as we learn from experience that God's way is the right way. Preaching the Gospel will also assure us of our own salvation as we constantly revisit the fact that we are saved by grace through faith (Eph. 2:8). Ultimately, every piece of armor is about having total faith in the truth of God's word. 

Conclusion

The whole armor of God is essential to living the Christian life, and putting on the whole armor is an exercise in trusting God and his word. Although we as Christians do not wrestle against flesh and blood, we are involved in spiritual warfare every day. The Devil and his minions want to create doubt in the word of God, which will ultimately lead to Christians becoming backslidden and failing to stand. The catalog of armor found in Ephesians 6 provides us with a checklist to ensure that our faith remains unshaken, and that we are able to stand in the evil day. 

Why the Book of Jonah Should be Taken Literally as History

 First I will give a few of the best arguments for Jonah not being literal, and then I will explain why Jonah should be read as a literal history.

Arguments for Jonah not being literal

For me, the most compelling argument as to why someone would view Jonah as a work of fiction is that the literary devices in the book, such as irony and poetic justice, are almost too perfect. Everything that happens in the story is so extreme, that one could be tempted to believe that it did not actually happen in real life. For example, Jonah is fast asleep while the ship is going through an intense storm that is on the verge of tearing the ship apart. The heathen sailors are rebuking the man of God for not praying. The heathen sailors are all converted to worshiping the LORD. Later, the men of Nineveh convert to worshiping the LORD en masse. All of these plot points are so extreme that I can see why someone might think that this is a parable using radical situations to drive home a spiritual truth, as opposed to documenting events that actually happened. 

Another somewhat compelling argument is that there seems to be a lack of historical context in the sense that we are not given the names of any kings who are reigning. There is nothing in the book itself to tell us when these events happened, other than the identity of Jonah himself, whom we can place in a historical context based on 2 Kings 14:25. The book immediately jumps into the action in Jonah 1:1 and ends abruptly in Jonah 4:11. Other narrative books tend to give more historical context either at the beginning or end of the book, or in both places. 

Arguments for Jonah being literal

The Bible contains many genres, but some genres are more common than others. There are large sections of the Old Testament that are clearly historical narratives, whereas there are relatively few allegories and parables. Therefore, it stands to reason that we would start with the assumption that Jonah is yet another historical narrative, and that we would not regard it as fictional without a very compelling reason.[1] 

Some would point to a late composition date as a reason to regard the book of Jonah as fictional, but this argument is flawed for a couple reasons. First, we cannot be sure that Jonah was composed at a late date. The book's use of the word טעם is considered an Aramaism,[2] but this is not necessarily indicative of late composition. The action is taking place in a foreign country, so the use of a somewhat exotic word is not too surprising. Second, even if the book were composed many centuries after the events it records, this does not mean it is not recording real events. Many historical narratives in the Old Testament were written centuries after the fact. Scripture is inspired by God, and therefore it does not rely on human memory or eyewitnesses alone to get the story right. 

Another objection to the historicity of Jonah is that it seems far-fetched that the capital of the Assyrian empire would have such dramatic repentance, and that there would be no historical record of it. First, the vast majority of historical records from antiquity have not survived, so absence of evidence is not evidence of absence. Second, the book of Jonah never refers to Nineveh as the capital of the Assyrian empire, and it never refers to Nineveh's king as the king of Assyria.[3] In fact, if we use 2 Kings 14:25 to place the book of Jonah in its proper historical context, we find that Nineveh was decidedly not the capital of the Assyrian empire at this time.[4] Therefore, we can conclude that the king of Nineveh was the king of the city of Nineveh alone, which is the only claim being made by the Bible. It is thus one city that repented at the preaching of Nineveh, and the historical record of this event is the book of Jonah itself. Nothing else regarding this incident has survived. 

A good reason not to regard Jonah as a parable is the length of the book. Parables tend to be much shorter than the book of Jonah. Parables in both the Old and New Testaments tend to be a few verses long.[5] Even a long parable, like the story of the prodigal son, is only 22 verses long. The book of Jonah on the other hand is 48 verses long, which is substantially longer than the longest of biblical parables. Also, the book of Jonah consists of four distinct chapters, which makes it too long and complex to fit the genre of being parable. Furthermore, parables do not use names. A parable would speak of "a certain prophet" not "Jonah the son of Amittai." 

Parables tend to tell stories about things that happen, or at least could happen, in everyday life.[6] I have often heard a parable defined as "an earthly story with a heavenly meaning." The book of Jonah, on the other hand, is far from describing ordinary life. It is packed with miracles and supernatural occurrences. Thus, it is ironic that scholars would point to the extraordinary occurrences in the book of Jonah as evidence that it is parable, when in reality, those are some of the very reasons why it could never be considered a parable.[7]   

Conclusion

I am fully convinced that Jonah should be read as history and not as a work of fiction or a parable. In addition to the compelling reasons listed above, the most powerful evidence is the way that Christ himself referred to Jonah. Jesus compared his own death, burial, and resurrection to the ordeal of Jonah in the whale, and he referred to it as a "sign." Just as Jonah was a sign to the Ninevites, Jesus was a sign to his own generation (Luke 11:30). The miraculous sign of Jonah being swallowed by a whale and regurgitated was likely instrumental in Nineveh's mass repentance.[8] If it did not actually happen, then why would Jesus compare the miracle of his actual resurrection to a sign that was not real? 

[1] Douglas Judisch, "The Historicity of Jonah," Concordia Theological Quarterly 63, no. 2 (April 1999): 146. 

[2] Paul J. N. Lawrence, "Assyrian Nobles and the Book of Jonah," Tyndale Bulletin 37 (1986): 121.

[3] Jay Lemanski, "Jonah's Nineveh," Concordia Journal (January 1992): 42.

[4] Ibid. 

[5] Judisch, "The Historicity of Jonah," 149.

[6] Ibid., 152. 

[7] Ibid. 

[8] Eugene H. Merrill, "The Sign of Jonah," Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 23, no. 1 (March 1980): 29.

Bibliography 

Judisch, Douglas. "The Historicity of Jonah." Concordia Theological Quarterly 63, no. 2 (April 1999): 144-157. 

Lawrence, Paul J. N. "Assyrian Nobles and the Book of Jonah." Tyndale Bulletin 37 (1986): 121-132. 

Lemanski, Jay. "Jonah's Nineveh." Concordia Journal (January 1992): 40-49.

Merrill, Eugene H. "The Sign of Jonah." Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 23, no. 1 (March 1980): 23-30.